Peter Singer's Ethics

Please find the following pages from Tom Butler-Bowdon's book - 50 Philosophy Classics for discussion: 

50 Philosophy Classics - Ch.46 Peter Singer

You can find Tom Butler-Bowdon's Wikipedia page here.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Seven

道德經  - 第四十七章

不出戶知天下；不闚牖見天道。

其出彌遠，其知彌少。

是以聖人不行而知，不見而名，不為而成。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Seven

Without opening your door, you can open your heart to the world. 

Without looking out your window, you can see the essence of the Dao.

The more you know, the less you understand. 

The master arrives without leaving, sees the light without looking, achieves without doing a thing.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Six

道德經  - 第四十六章

天下有道，卻走馬以糞。

天下無道，戎馬生於郊。

禍莫大於不知足；咎莫大於欲得。

故知足之足，常足矣。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Six

When a country is in harmony with the Dao, the factories make trucks and tractors.

When a country goes counter to the Dao, warheads are stockpiled outside the cities.

There is no greater illusion than fear, no greater wrong than preparing to defend yourself. 

No greater misfortune than having an enemy.

Whoever can see through all fear, will always be safe.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Five

道德經  - 第四十五章

大成若缺，其用不弊。

大盈若沖，其用不窮。

大直若屈，大巧若拙，大辯若訥。

躁勝寒，靜勝熱。 

清靜為天下正。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Five

True perfection seems imperfect, yet it is perfectly itself. 

True fullness seems empty, yet it is fully present.

True straightness seems crooked.

True wisdom seems foolish.

True art seems artless.

The master allows things to happen. 

She shapes events as they come.

She steps out of the way, and lets the Dao speak for itself.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Four

道德經  - 第四十四章

名與身孰親？

身與貨孰多？

得與亡孰病？

是故甚愛必大費；多藏必厚亡。

知足不辱，知止不殆，可以長久。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Four

Fame or integrity, which is more important?

Money or happiness, which is more valuable?

Success or failure, which is more destructive? 

If you look to others for fulfilment, you will never truly be fulfilled.

If your happiness depends on money, you will never be happy with yourself.

Be content with what you have; rejoice in the way things are.

When you realise there is nothing lacking, the whole world belongs to you.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Three

道德經  - 第四十三章

天下之至柔，馳騁天下之至堅。

無有入無間，吾是以知無為之有益。

不言之教，無為之益，天下希及之。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Three

The gentlest thing in the world, overcomes the hardest thing in the world.

That which has no substance, enters where there is no space.

This shows the value of non-action.

Teaching without words, performing without actions, that is the master's way. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Two

 

道德經  - 第四十二章

道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。

萬物負陰而抱陽，沖氣以為和。

人之所惡，唯孤、寡、不穀，而王公以為稱。

故物或損之而益，或益之而損。

人之所教，我亦教之。

強梁者不得其死，吾將以為教父。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty Two

The Dao gives birth to one. 

One gives birth to two.

Two gives birth to three.

Three gives birth to all things.

All things carry ying and embrace yang.

When ying and yang combine, all things achieve harmony.

Ordinary men hate solitude, but the master makes use of it, embracing his aloneness, realising he is one with the whole universe. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty One

道德經  - 第四十一章

上士聞道，勤而行之；

中士聞道，若存若亡； 

下士聞道，大笑之。 

不笑不足以為道。

故建言有之：明道若昧；進道若退；

夷道若纇；上德若谷； 

太白若辱；廣德若不足；

建德若偷；質真若渝； 

大方無隅；大器晚成；

大音希聲；大象無形； 

道隱無名。

夫唯道，善貸且成。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty One

When a superior man hears of the Dao, he immediately begins to embody it.

When an average man hears of the Dao, he half believes it, half doubts it. 

When a foolish man hears of the Dao, he laughs out loud.

If he didn't laugh, it wouldn't be the Dao.

Thus it is said the path into the light seems dark. 

The path forward seems to go back.

The direct path seems long.

True power seems weak.

True purity seems tarnished.

Truth steadfastness seems changeable. 

True clarity seems obscure.

The greatest art seems unsophisticated.

The greatest love seems indifferent.

The greatest wisdom seems childish. 

The Dao is nowhere to be found, yet it nourishes and completes all things.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter Forty

 

道德經  - 第四十章

反者道之動；弱者道之用。

天下萬物生於有，有生於無。

Daodejing - Chapter Forty

Return is the movement of the Dao.

Yielding is the way of the Dao.

All things are born of being.

Being is born of non-being. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 39

道德經  - 第三十九章

昔之得一者：天得一以清；地得一以寧； 

神得一以靈；谷得一以盈； 

萬物得一以生；侯王得一以為天下貞。

其致之，天無以清，將恐裂；地無以寧，將恐發；

神無以靈，將恐歇；谷無以盈，將恐竭；

萬物無以生，將恐滅；侯王無以貴高將恐蹶。

故貴以賤為本，高以下為基。

是以侯王自稱孤、寡、不穀。

此非以賤為本耶？非乎？

故致數譽無譽。

不欲琭琭如玉，珞珞如石。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Nine

In harmony with the Dao; the sky is clear and spacious; the earth is solid and full.

All creatures flourish together, content with the way they are -  endlessly repeating themselves, endlessly renewed. 

When man interferes with the Dao; the sky becomes filthy; the earth becomes depleted. 

The equilibrium crumbles; creatures become extinct.

The master used the parts with compassion, because he understands the whole, his constant practice, his humility. 

He doesn't glitter like a jewel, but lets himself be shaped by the Dao, as rugged and common as a stone. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 38

 

道德經  - 第三十八章

上德不德，是以有德；

下德不失德，是以無德。

上德無為而無以為；

下德為之而有以為。

上仁為之而無以為；

上義為之而有以為。

上禮為之而莫之應，則攘臂而扔之。

故失道而後德，失德而後仁，失仁而後義，失義而後禮。

夫禮者，忠信之薄，而亂之首。

前識者，道之華，而愚之始。

是以大丈夫處其厚，不居其薄；

處其實，不居其華。

故去彼取此。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Eight

The master doesn't try to be powerful, thus he is truly powerful. 

The ordinary man keeps reaching for power, thus he never has enough.

The master does nothing, yet he leaves nothing undone. 

The ordinary man is always doing things, yet many more are left to be done.

The kind man does something, yet something remains undone.

The just man does something, and leaves many things to be done.

The moral man does something, and when no one responds, he rolls up his sleeves and uses force.

When the Dao is lost, there is goodness.

When goodness is lost, there is morality.

When morality is lost, there is ritual.

Ritual is the husk of true faith, the beginning of chaos.

Therefore the master concerns himself with the depths, and not the surface, with the fruit and not the flower.

He has no will of his own. 

He dwells in reality and lets all illusions go. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 37

 

道德經  - 第三十七章

道常無為而無不為。

侯王若能守之，萬物將自化。

化而欲作，吾將鎮之以無名之樸。

無名之樸，夫亦將無欲。

不欲以靜，天下將自定。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Seven

The Dao never does anything, yet through it, all things are done.

If powerful men and women could centre themselves in it, the whole world would be transformed by itself, in its natural rhythms.

People would be content with their simple everyday lives, in harmony and free of desire. 

When there is no desire, all things are at peace.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 36

道德經  - 第三十六章

將欲歙之，必固張之；

將欲弱之，必固強之；

將欲廢之，必固興之；

將欲奪之，必固與之。

是謂微明。

柔弱勝剛強。

魚不可脫於淵，國之利器不可以示人。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Six

If you want to shrink something, you must first allow it to expand. 

If you want to get rid of something, you must first allow it to flourish.

If you want to take something, you must first allow it to be given. 

This is called the subtle perception of the way things are. 

The soft overcomes the hard.

The slow overcomes the fast. 

Let your workings remain a mystery, just show people the results.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 35

 

 道德經  - 第三十五章

執大象，天下往。

往而不害，安平大。

樂與餌，過客止。

道之出口，淡乎其無味，視之不足見，聽之不足聞，用之不足既。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Five

She who is centred in the Dao can go where she wishes without danger.

She perceives the universal harmony, even amid great pain, because she has found peace in her heart.

Music or the smell of good cooking may make people stop and enjoy, but words that point to the Dao, seem monotonous and without flavour. 

When you look for it there is nothing to see. 

When you listen for it there is nothing to hear.

When you use it, it is inexhaustible. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 34

 道德經  - 第三十四章

大道汎兮，其可左右

萬物恃之而生而不辭，功成不名有。

衣養萬物而不為主，常無欲，可名於小；

萬物歸焉，而不為主，可名為大。

以其終不自為大，故能成其大。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Four

The great Dao flows everywhere. 

All things are born from it, yet it doesn't create them. 

It pours itself into its work, yet it makes no claim.

It nourishes infinite worlds, yet it doesn't hold on to them.

Since it is merged with all things, and hidden in their hearts, it can be called

humble. 

Since all things vanish into it, and it alone endures, it can be called great.

it isn't aware of its greatness, thus it is truly great.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 33

 

道德經  - 第三十三章

知人者智，自知者明。

勝人者有力，自勝者強。

知足者富。

強行者有志。

不失其所者久。

死而不亡者壽。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Three

Knowing others is intelligence. 

Knowing yourself is true wisdom. 

Mastering others is strength. 

Mastering yourself is true power. 

If you realise that you have enough, you are truly rich. 

If you stay in the centre and embrace death with your whole heart, you will endure forever. 

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 32

Photo by Stephen Crowley on Unsplash

道德經  - 第三十二章

道常無名。

樸雖小，天下莫能臣也。

侯王若能守之，萬物將自賓。

天地相合，以降甘露，民莫之令而自均。

始制有名，名亦既有，夫亦將知止，知止所以不殆。

譬道之在天下，猶川谷之與江海。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty Two

The Dao can't be perceived.

Smaller than an electron, it contains uncountable galaxies. 

If powerful men and women could remain centred in the Dao, all things would be in harmony.

The world would become a paradise.

All people would be at peace, and the law would be written in their hearts.

When you have names and forms, know that they are provisional.

When you have institutions, know where their functions should end. 

Knowing when to stop, you can avoid any danger. 

All things end in the Dao, as rivers flow into the sea.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Daodejing - Chapter 31

 

Photo by Антон Дмитриев on Unsplash   

道德經  - 第三十一章

夫佳兵者，不祥之器，物或惡之，故有道者不處。

君子居則貴左，用兵則貴右。

兵者不祥之器，非君子之器，不得已而用之，恬淡為上。

勝而不美，而美之者，是樂殺人。

夫樂殺人者，則不可以得志於天下矣。

吉事尚左，凶事尚右。

偏將軍居左，上將軍居右，言以喪禮處之。

殺人之衆，以哀悲泣之，戰勝以喪禮處之。

Daodejing - Chapter Thirty One 

Weapons are the tools of violence.  

All decent men detest them.

Weapons are the tools of fear.  

A decent man will avoid them, except in the direst necessity, and if compelled, will use them only with the utmost restraint.

Peace is his highest value.  

If peace has been shattered, how can he be content? 

His enemies are not demons, but human beings like himself.

He doesn't wish them personal harm, nor does he rejoice in victory.

How could he rejoice in victory, and delight in the slaughter of men? 

He enters a battle gravely with sorrow, and with great compassion, as if he were attending a funeral.

References

1. The English translation is based on the translation by poet, translator, scholar and anthologist, Stephen Mitchell, with some changes.  
2. The Chinese text is based on the Daodejing (James Legge version) in the ctext.org website : https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing.

Aristotle's Ethics

 

Please find the following pages from Professor A. C. Grayling's book - A History of Philosophy for discussion: 

• A History of Philosophy p.90-91
• A History of Philosophy p.92-93
• A History of Philosophy p.94-95

You can find Professor A. C. Grayling's Wikipedia page here.

Sources of Philosophy - by K Jaspers

Professor K Jaspers discusses the Sources of Philosophy in Chapter 2 of his book Way to Wisdom.

The mind map below attempts to present some key ideas on the Sources of Philosophy:

The idea of the Comprehensive - by Karl Jaspers

The idea of the Comprehensive is explored in Chapter 3 of Prof. K Jaspers' book Way to Wisdom.

Mind maps on the main ideas of the Comprehensive can be found below:

What are the problems of understanding things as objects?

1. The Problem of Understanding Things as Objects:

   - Jaspers questioned the limitations inherent in viewing everything as mere objects.

   - When we reduce phenomena solely to objects, we risk overlooking their profound significance and inter-connectedness.

   - The challenge lies in recognising that reality transcends mere objectification.

   - Being—that which exists—cannot be neatly categorised as either subject or object.

   - Jaspers proposed a more nuanced approach—one that acknowledges the limitations of the subject-object divide.

2. The Comprehensive:

   - Jaspers introduced the concept of the Comprehensive (or pereichontology).

   - Instead of directly approaching Being (existence), he advocated for an indirect method.

   - The Comprehensive illuminates the sphere within which Being becomes present to us.

   - It acknowledges the subject-object dichotomy but also reveals its limits.

   - Within this framework, Being emerges neither purely as subject nor as object; it defies such categorisation.

   - Jaspers invites us to explore the mystery that lies beyond mere objectification.

   - In doing so, we open ourselves to a richer understanding—one that transcends rigid boundaries.

In summary, Jaspers' philosophy encourages us to move beyond simplistic objectification, recognising that Being reveals itself within the intricate dance of subjectivity and objectivity. 

¹: Fritz Buri, "Jaspers' Philosophy of Existence as a Model for Theological Reflection," *Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche* (November 1964), 361–362.

²: Fritz Buri, *How Can We Still Speak Responsibly of God* (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968), pp. 7–9, 17–18.

³: *Jaspers' Philosophy of Existence*, Springer, [link](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/bf00140283.pdf)

Source: Conversation with Bing, 11/03/2024

(1) JASPERS' PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCE - Springer. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/bf00140283.pdf.

(2) The Subject-Object Dichotomy - Douglas Lockhart. http://www.douglaslockhart.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Subject-Object-Dichotomy.pdf.

(3) The Subject-Object Division in Jaspers, Schopenhauer, and ... - Existenz. https://existenz.us/volumes/Vol.13-1Knauss.pdf.

(4) “The Last Kantian”: Outlines of Karl Jaspers’s ... - Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-44571-3_13.

The Dao De Jing

Chapter 1 of Dao De Jing may help to explain the idea of the Comprehensive:

The Dao that can be told, is not the eternal Dao.

The name that can be named, is not the eternal name.

The unnameable is the eternally real.  

Naming is the origin of all particular things.

Free from desire, you realize the mystery; caught in desire, you see only the manifestations.

Yet mystery and manifestations, arise from the same source. 

This source is called darkness. 

Darkness within darkness, the gateway to all understanding.

Fact and Truth

Are Facts and Truth are the same.  What do you think? 

The following is an answer from Bing.

Can some facts be not true, and vice versa, in philosophy?

Certainly! In philosophy, the distinction between facts and truths is nuanced and thought-provoking. Let's delve into it:

1. Facts:

   - Facts are like musical notes on a sheet. They are concrete, objective realities that cannot be logically disputed or rejected.

   - For instance, if I say "fire is hot," regardless of your reasoning skills, touching fire will indeed burn your skin. This is a fact — a reality that remains unchanged.

   - Facts are not discovered or created; they are simply acknowledged.

   - However, facts can be context-dependent. For example, the transfer of heat through conduction differs from training one's body to tolerate pain.

   - In summary, facts are rigid and resistant to reasoning.

2. Truths:

   - Truths, on the other hand, are more fluid and malleable.

   - They require discovery or creation. When we say "God exists," it's a truth that depends on our reasoning and perspective.

   - If someone else possesses strong reasoning against God's existence, their belief becomes an equally valid reality.

   - Unlike facts, truths are not fixed; they evolve based on reasoning, interpretation, and individual perspectives.

   - Think of truths as the heartfelt lyrics a singer shares when she opens up and sings from her heart.

In everyday conversation, we often use these terms interchangeably, but in philosophy, they carry distinct meanings. Facts are like solid notes, while truths are the melodies we weave through interpretation and reasoning¹². 🎵🤔

Source: Conversation with Bing, 03/03/2024

(1) logic - What is the difference between Fact and Truth? - Philosophy .... https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/8053/what-is-the-difference-between-fact-and-truth.

(2) What does Nietzsche mean by "there are no facts, only interpretations"?. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/7303/what-does-nietzsche-mean-by-there-are-no-facts-only-interpretations.

(3) 5.1 Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth - OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/introduction-philosophy/pages/5-1-philosophical-methods-for-discovering-truth.

Can you think of some examples where facts are not truth, or truth that are not facts?