Showing posts with label Introduction to Philosophy. Show all posts

Thursday, 7 May 2026

Moral Philosophy / Ethics

Philosophy Bites - Janet Radcliffe Richards on What is Philosophy?

Janet Radcliffe Richards on What is Philosophy?

In term 1 on 18/3/26, Helen led a discussion on moral philosophy / ethics. Please find below some notes on the subject prepared by Helen:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1k3GGpaMT8YkLnUIQFnsK4w1yMKIopkQT/view?usp=sharing

We will listen to the above podcast and have further discussion on this interesting topic.

Debate | Legalising the Sale of Human Organs

The following Youtube playlist lists videos of a debate on Sale of Human Organs at the Oxford Union Society on Thursday 29th October 2015. The motion was: This House Would Legalise the Sale of Human Organs.

https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLOAFgXcJkZ2zAkdONvfZuUzx6aiflkTId&si=4mcAOAbYcS3sSHq3

Speakers in order of appearance:

Callum Tipple | Proposition

Naomi Barker | Opposition

Janet Radcliffe Richards | Proposition

Vivienne Parry | Opposition

John Harris | Proposition

Raanan Gillon | Opposition

This coming Wednesday, 20/5/26, I plan to watch some of the videos in this playlist and discuss the arguments made by both the proposing and the opposing sides.

Arguments of the debate

Please find below my summary of the arguments of the human organ debate:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1tn-t6PbyVzlJhvX_QgvC-Cg10LrgZ2gI/view?usp=sharing

Kidney trade in Iran

Iran currently is the only country in the world that allows the sale of one's kidney for compensation (typically a payment); consequently, the country does not have either a waiting list or a shortage of available organs. For more information, please see below:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_trade_in_Iran

Organ trade - Wikipedia page

Please see below:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_trade

Wednesday, 11 February 2026

Branches of Philosophy

The Map of Philosophy - by Carneades.org

What are the branches of Philosophy?

The above Map of Philosophy picture is a screenshot of the YouTube video The Map of Philosophy - by Carneades.org: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxBShJU_CKs&list=PPSV

The Carneades.org YouTube channel has playlists of videos covering particular topics of philosophy:
https://www.youtube.com/@CarneadesOfCyrene/playlists

Philosophy page on Wikipedia

Let's have a look at the following Wikipedia pages:

Portal: Philosophy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy

Outline of Philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy

Tuesday, 3 February 2026

First class of 2026

Welcome all to the

Philosophy Phor Phun Discussion class

of 2026

1. Welcome

2. Emergency evacuation procedure

3. Medical emergency procedure

4. Get to know each other

5. The PPPD blog

6. Planned topics for term 1

7. What is Philosophy?

What is Philosophy? - First Lecture of the Semester - Prof. Jeffrey Kaplan

Some questions?

1. Prof. Kaplan (PK) claims in the video above (at 5:40) that the question "Does God exist?" is not a subjective question. However, one can subjectively believe whether God exists or not. Is PK correct? Please see a possible answer here.

Wednesday, 12 February 2025

Introduction to Philosophy

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its methods and assumptions.

Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. [1]

What does the word "philosophy" mean?

The word "philosophy" literally means "love of wisdom". The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words φίλος (philos) 'love' and σοφία (sophia) 'wisdom'. [1]

What are the branches of Philosophy?

Let's have a look at the following Wikipedia pages:

Portal: Philosophy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy

Outline of Philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy

Some Questions for Discussion

Why do people study and practise philosophy?
Is philosophy or the pursuit of wisdom a good thing?
Is having wisdom sufficient for a person to be a good person?
Is the pursuit of wisdom sufficient for a person to live a meaningful life?
Can the study and the practice of philosophy help to improve the world?
What is or are the aims of studying and practising philosophy?

Note:

1. Wikipedia: Philosophy page.

Sunday, 3 March 2024

Fact and Truth

Are Facts and Truth are the same. What do you think?

The following is an answer from Bing.

Can some facts be not true, and vice versa, in philosophy?

Certainly! In philosophy, the distinction between facts and truths is nuanced and thought-provoking. Let's delve into it:

1. Facts:

- Facts are like musical notes on a sheet. They are concrete, objective realities that cannot be logically disputed or rejected.

- For instance, if I say "fire is hot," regardless of your reasoning skills, touching fire will indeed burn your skin. This is a fact — a reality that remains unchanged.

- Facts are not discovered or created; they are simply acknowledged.

- However, facts can be context-dependent. For example, the transfer of heat through conduction differs from training one's body to tolerate pain.

- In summary, facts are rigid and resistant to reasoning.

2. Truths:

- Truths, on the other hand, are more fluid and malleable.

- They require discovery or creation. When we say "God exists," it's a truth that depends on our reasoning and perspective.

- If someone else possesses strong reasoning against God's existence, their belief becomes an equally valid reality.

- Unlike facts, truths are not fixed; they evolve based on reasoning, interpretation, and individual perspectives.

- Think of truths as the heartfelt lyrics a singer shares when she opens up and sings from her heart.

In everyday conversation, we often use these terms interchangeably, but in philosophy, they carry distinct meanings. Facts are like solid notes, while truths are the melodies we weave through interpretation and reasoning¹². 🎵🤔

Source: Conversation with Bing, 03/03/2024

(1) logic - What is the difference between Fact and Truth? - Philosophy .... https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/8053/what-is-the-difference-between-fact-and-truth.

(2) What does Nietzsche mean by "there are no facts, only interpretations"?. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/7303/what-does-nietzsche-mean-by-there-are-no-facts-only-interpretations.

(3) 5.1 Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth - OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/introduction-philosophy/pages/5-1-philosophical-methods-for-discovering-truth.

Can you think of some examples where facts are not truth, or truth that are not facts?

Monday, 26 February 2024

Some Questions on Jaspers' "What is Philosophy?"

Do you agree with the answers from Bing to the following questions?

What is the Primal Source according to Karl Jaspers?

According to Karl Jaspers, the primal source is the innermost core of human existence, where one can find the ultimate meaning and truth of one's being. It is the source of philosophy, which is the decision to awaken, explore, and express this primal source. Jaspers writes: "Philosophy is the decision to awaken our primal source, to find our way back to ourselves, and to help ourselves by inner action."¹ The primal source is not a fixed or static essence, but a dynamic and creative potential that can be actualized in different ways. Jaspers calls these ways the modes of the primal source, which include the modes of being, of consciousness, of spirit, and of communication. The primal source is also the basis of transcendence, which is the experience of going beyond the limits of empirical reality and encountering the encompassing, the absolute, or the divine.²

¹: [Karl Jaspers : The Philosophical Life]

²: [2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic]

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024

(1) Karl Jaspers | German Existential Philosopher & Psychologist. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Jaspers.

(2) CHAPTER ONE - Columbia University. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/religion/f2001/docs/axial_age.html.

(3) Karl Jaspers : The Philosophical Life. https://www.anthologialitt.com/post/karljaspers-thephilosophicallife.

(4) 2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic. https://bing.com/search?q=Primal+source+according+to+Karl+Jaspers.

(5) 2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/13846/chapter/167531187.

What does Karl Jaspers mean when he said the aim of philosophy is to find reality in the primal source?

Karl Jaspers said that the aim of philosophy is to find reality in the primal source, which is the innermost core of human existence, where one can find the ultimate meaning and truth of one's being. He believes that personal experience is one's fundamental source of truth about reality, and that philosophy is the decision to awaken, explore, and express this primal source. He also thinks that the primal source is the basis of transcendence, which is the experience of going beyond the limits of empirical reality and encountering the encompassing, the absolute, or the divine. ¹²

¹: [2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic](^1^)

²: [Karl Jaspers' Philosophy of Existence (Chapter 2) - Death ...](^2^)

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024

(1) 2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/13846/chapter/167531187.

(2) Karl Jaspers' Philosophy of Existence (Chapter 2) - Death .... https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/death-deathlessness-and-existenz-in-karl-jaspers-philosophy/karl-jaspers-philosophy-of-existence/30BC8AFC81B132DA809BB24BC77FCE07.

(3) 2 Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence - Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/13846/chapter/167531187.

(4) Karl Jaspers' Philosophy of Existence (Chapter 2) - Death .... https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/death-deathlessness-and-existenz-in-karl-jaspers-philosophy/karl-jaspers-philosophy-of-existence/30BC8AFC81B132DA809BB24BC77FCE07.

(5) Karl Jaspers - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers.

(6) undefined. https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9780748625352.003.0003.

What is the Comprehensive and the Encompassing according to Karl Jaspers?

According to Karl Jaspers, the Comprehensive and the Encompassing are two key concepts in his philosophy of existence. The Comprehensive is the totality of all the objects and phenomena that we can experience and know through our senses and reason. It includes the natural world, the human world, and the cultural world.

The Encompassing is the ultimate source and ground of all being and meaning, which transcends the Comprehensive and cannot be grasped by our ordinary cognition. It is the realm of the absolute, the divine, and the transcendent. Jaspers argues that we can only approach the Encompassing through indirect and symbolic ways, such as faith, love, communication, and philosophy. The Encompassing always announces itself in the Comprehensive, but it never becomes an object of knowledge. ¹²³

¹: [Karl Jaspers on The Encompassing (1949) - YouTube]

²: [Thinking from the Origin: Critical and Personal Remarks on Jaspers ...]

³: [On the Being of the Encompassing - Mortal Immortals]

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024

(1) Karl Jaspers on The Encompassing (1949) - YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hFOz2WrIKk.

(2) Thinking from the Origin: Critical and Personal Remarks on Jaspers .... https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-007-2223-1_14.pdf.

(3) On the Being of the Encompassing - Mortal Immortals. https://mortalimmortals.com/on-the-being-of-the-encompassing/.

(4) Karl Jaspers on The Encompassing (1949) - YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hFOz2WrIKk.

(5) Thinking from the Origin: Critical and Personal Remarks on Jaspers .... https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-007-2223-1_14.pdf.

(6) On the Being of the Encompassing - Mortal Immortals. https://mortalimmortals.com/on-the-being-of-the-encompassing/.

(7) Karl Jaspers - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers.

What is reality?

Reality is a complex and contested concept that has different meanings and implications in different fields and perspectives. In general, reality is the totality of all things, structures, events, and phenomena that exist independently of human minds¹. However, some philosophers and scientists argue that reality is also influenced by human perception, interpretation, and construction². Therefore, reality may not be the same for everyone, and it may not be fully knowable or objective. Reality is one of the most profound and enduring questions in philosophy and human inquiry.

¹: [Reality - Wikipedia]
²: [“Reality” is constructed by your brain. Here’s what that means, and why it matters. | Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute]

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024
(1) Reality - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality.
(2) “Reality” is constructed by your brain. Here’s what that means, and why .... https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/reality-constructed-your-brain-here-s-what-means-and-why-it-matters.

What are facts in philosophy?

In philosophy, the concept of a fact is closely tied to questions of objectivity, truth, and reality. Let's explore a few perspectives on what a fact is:

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP): The SEP entry on Facts delves into various aspects of this topic. It discusses how facts relate to propositions and the totality of circumstances. You can find more detailed information there¹.

2. Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: Ludwig Wittgenstein, in his work, begins with the statement: "The world is all that is the case." He defines a fact as a **real circumstance (or "Tatsache" in German) determined by the totality of facts. Essentially, a fact corresponds to a situation that exists¹.

3. General Definition: In a broader sense, a fact can be defined as something that is the case, representing the state of affairs reported by a true proposition².

Remember that the understanding of facts can vary across different philosophical schools, and this topic remains open to interpretation and debate.

Source: Conversation with Bing, 03/03/2024

(1) metaphysics - What is a fact? - Philosophy Stack Exchange. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/29262/what-is-a-fact.

(2) Fact - New World Encyclopedia. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Fact.

(3) Fact (philosophy) - AcademiaLab. https://academia-lab.com/encyclopedia/fact-philosophy/.

(4) Fact - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact.

(5) The Fact/Opinion Distinction - The Philosophers' Magazine. https://www.philosophersmag.com/essays/26-the-fact-opinion-distinction.

(6) undefined. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/facts/.

What is Truth in philosophy?

Truth in philosophy is the property of statements, beliefs, or propositions that are said to agree with reality or to state what is the case. There are different theories and views of truth in philosophy, such as the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, the pragmatic theory, and the relativist theory. These theories try to answer questions such as: What are the criteria for truth? How can we know or discover truth? Are there different kinds or levels of truth? Is truth objective or subjective, absolute or relative, universal or particular? Truth is one of the most fundamental and important concepts in philosophy, as it is the basis of knowledge, logic, and rationality. ¹²

¹: [Truth | Definition, Importance, Theories, & Facts | Britannica]

²: [Truth - Wikipedia]

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024

(1) Truth | Definition, Importance, Theories, & Facts | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic.

(2) Truth - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth.

When philosophers talk about seeking the Truth, what do they mean?

Philosophers are interested in finding out what is true and how we can know it. They use different methods and criteria to justify their claims to truth, such as logic, evidence, coherence, and experience. They also explore different aspects and domains of truth, such as physical, mathematical, moral, and historical truth. Philosophers seek the truth because they want to understand reality, knowledge, and rationality. ¹²³

¹: [Philosophy and the Search for Truth | Philosophia - Springer]

²: [Seven Approaches to Finding the Truth | Psychology Today]

³: [5.1: Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth]

Source: Conversation with Bing, 26/02/2024

(1) Philosophy and the Search for Truth | Philosophia - Springer. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11406-013-9426-5.

(2) Seven Approaches to Finding the Truth | Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/theory-knowledge/202009/seven-approaches-finding-the-truth.

(3) 5.1: Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth. https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Philosophy/Introduction_to_Philosophy_%28OpenStax%29/05%3A_Logic_and_Reasoning/5.01%3A_Philosophical_Methods_for_Discovering_Truth.

Sunday, 31 December 2023

What is Philosophy?

What is Philosophy? Meaning of Philosophy (30/1/18)

The video above, posted by PHILO-notes, gives a general introduction to Philosophy.

What is Philosophy? (11/3/20)

https://youtu.be/JFfIQJsUFL4?si=wcG8yuBnBqjGEEc1
In the video above Professor Jeffrey Kaplan approaches the question of "What is Philosophy" from looking into questions that university students, who are interested in philosophy, might ask.

What Is Philosophy? Karl Jaspers

The first chapter of the book "Way to Wisdom" by Professor Karl Jaspers (23 February 1883 – 26 February 1969) attempts to address the question "What is Philosophy?".

A translation of the book can be found here and on the Internet Archive.

When reading Professor Jaspers' book, please replace the word "man" with "human" where appropriate.

On becoming wise

What are the philosophical questions that are important to you?

The following may be important or of interest to you:

What should I do during my lifetime?
What is the purpose of life?
What should I try to get from life?
Why is life so terrible for me?
Why should one do philosophy?
How can I tell if something is true or false?
How do I decide what is good and what is bad?
How do I decide what or who is more believable?
How do I live a good life?
How can I be a good person?
How can I be free?
How can I be rich and happy?

These are examples of questions that philosophers might investigate. These questions have no single correct answer. If you are interested in questions like these, or what others might think, then I believe you are on your way to becoming a philosopher.

If you just want to know the Answer, then you need to listen to Leonard Cohen in this video the Tower of Song. It's a lovely song. 😉😆

Tuesday, 10 October 2023

Political Discussion and Philosophical Discussion

Aspasia Conversing with Socrates and Alcibiades

Introduction

Political discussion is about the issues that affect how a society is run, such as laws, policies, rights, etc. It uses evidence, facts, logic, and consequences to persuade or influence others.

Philosophical discussion is about the questions that affect how we understand ourselves and the world, such as ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, etc. It uses analysis, intuition, experiments, and dialectics to clarify or seek the truth.

Political and philosophical discussions can overlap and interact with each other, especially in political philosophy, which deals with the fundamental questions about politics.

Political Discussion

For professional politicians, the motive of political discussion or debate is often about influencing voters and winning votes.

For ordinary people, the reasons for engaging in political discussion or debate are more varied and could range from simply pride to a genuine wish to share ideas and knowledge.

Philosophical Discussion

The following are some features of philosophical discussion from my personal perspective:

1. Backed by reasons

A philosophical argument should have proper premises and logic so that the argument would be sound.

2. It's important

Philosophical discussion should be about important questions. Whether a question is important or not probably depends on the values a person holds.

Philosophers often wish to look at the more basic or fundamental questions. So if a particular issue is based on certain premises, these premises lead to more basic questions. These basic or fundamental questions are often considered more important by philosophers as they affect a range of issues.

3. A neutral perspective

A philosopher should attempt to consider the issue from a neutral perspective similar to what a judge would do when considering a legal case. The philosopher should avoid being emotionally involved in either side of the argument.

4. The Platonic world of philosophical ideas

In Professor Roger Penrose's "Three Worlds" model, the timeless and universal mathematical truth belongs in the Platonic mathematical world. Similarly we can imagine a Platonic philosophical world where timeless and universal philosophical truth belongs. The ideas (or truth) that philosophers aim to grasp would be in this Platonic philosophical world.

This diagram shows a particular way of looking at the differences between philosophical and political discussion, and also about the differences between fact and truth, and between reality and the physical world:

Political vs Philosophical Discussion

Some suggestions

The following are some suggestions for philosophical discourse:

Expect people to disagree with us because people are different and have different opinions.

Expect people to tell you that you are wrong because that is what people do.

Expect some people to laugh at our ideas because it is said "Low level scholars hear Dao, laugh loudly."[1]

Do not try to convince others by debating or by using reasons, because:

people generally do not change their minds because they lost the debate or have been overwhelmed by reasons; and
people often decide first before coming up with reasons and arguments to justify their decisions. So when you debate with them and show them that they are illogical and insufficient in their reasoning, they get upset but would not change their minds. They will try to come up with better reasons; and
One can learn more by listening and asking questions than by debating; and
Laozi said "To teach without words, rarely anything can compare" [2]; and
Zhuanzi says all theories and opinions are equal [3].

Do not simply repeat what others said.

There are times for silence, times for theorising, and times for discussion. Zhuanzi said "As to what is beyond the Six Realms,[4] the sage admits it exists but does not theorise. As to what is within the Six Realms, he theorises but does not discuss. In the case of the Spring and Autumn,[5] the record of the former kings of past ages, the sage discusses but does not debate. " [6]

References:

Chapter 41, Daodejing.
Chapter 43, Daodejing.
Section 1, Chapter 2, Zhuangzi. In this section of chapter 2, Zhuangzi uses the allegory of the huge tree that has many hollows and openings, and they make different sounds when the wind blows. Humans are like the different hollows and openings. We are all different. Human theories and opinions are like the sounds of the hollows and openings of the huge tree. They sound different, but they are all caused by the wind which represents Dao. All theories and opinions are equal because they react to the same basic cause -- Dao. However, for practical purposes, some theories and opinions are correct and some are not. For philosophical discussion though, we are not dealing with practical issues. Therefore, all theories and opinions can be said to be equal.
Heaven, earth, and the four directions, that is, the universe. The "Six Realms" can be interpreted as the "Six Harmonies" or the "Six Togetherness". In Daodejing, chapter two, it says "Being and non-being create each other; difficult and easy support each other; long and short define each other; high and low depend on each other; musical notes and tones harmonise with each other, before and after follow each other." Laozi gives these six situations as examples of how humans group things together and at the same time differentiate them. Humans create this concept of length and then differentiate long and short. While long and short are different, they define each other. Long poles have their use, and short sticks also have their use. Therefore, the Six Realms can be interpreted as the different situations that we interact with the world around us.
Perhaps a reference to the Spring and Autumn Annals, a history of the state of Lu said to have been compiled by Confucius. But it may be a generic term referring to the chronicles of the various feudal states.
Burton Watson has a slightly different translation: "As to what is within the Six Realms, he theorises but does not debate. In the case of the Spring and Autumn, the record of the former kings of past ages, the sage debate but does not discriminate." Note that in debate, the aim is generally to influence the opinions of the debating judges, voters, juries, or judges in courts. Philosophers aim to find truth and knowledge; so they should not debate. The Socratic method is a form of argumentative dialogue called dialectic. Dialectic is different from debate in that dialectic is to search for truth and debate is to influence people. For both translations, Zhuangzi believes that the sage does not theorise about things beyond the Six Realms. These might be beliefs about what happens after death, about heaven and hell. For things within the Six Realms, the sage listens and learns and theorises. In the case of practical issues (which the Spring and Autumn, the record of the former kings of past ages presumably implies), The first translation in the text above would say Zhuanzi believes the sage discuss practical issues with others but does not try to influence others using debate. For Watson's translation, Zhuangzi believes the sage would debate with others but does not discriminate which side of the argument is better, similar to dialectic.