Confucianism - Great learning

 

見賢思齊焉；見不賢而內自省也 - 論語, 里仁篇， 第十七章

When we see men of worth, we should think of equalling them;

when we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves
-  The Analects, chapter 4.17.

Confucius

Confucius (孔子, Kǒngzǐ), born Kong Qiu (孔丘) 551 BCE in the state of Lu ( 魯, modern-day Shandong, China), was a profoundly influential Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political thinker during the Spring and Autumn period [1]. 

He is best known for founding Confucianism, a system of thought that emphasises moral integrity, social harmony, respect for elders, and the importance of education and ritual [2].

Rather than claiming to invent new ideas, Confucius saw himself as a transmitter of ancient wisdom. His teachings, preserved in the Analects, advocate for virtues like ren (仁 benevolence), yì (義 righteousness), li (禮 ritual propriety), and xiao (孝 filial piety), which he believed were essential for cultivating both personal character and just governance [3].

His legacy has shaped Chinese civilisation for over two millennia and continues to influence East Asian cultures and ethical thought around the world. 

References:

1. Britannica - Confucius: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Confucius

2. English: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius

    Chinese: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90

3. World History Encyclopedia - Confucius: https://www.worldhistory.org/Confucius/

Four Books and Five Classics

The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. Starting in the Han dynasty, they became the core of the Chinese classics on which students were tested in the Imperial examination system.

The Four Books (四書; Sìshū) are Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism. They were selected by intellectual Zhu Xi in the Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations. 

The Four Books are:

• Great Learning《大學》
• Doctrine of the Mean 《中庸》
• Analects《論語》
• Mencius《孟子》

The Five Classics (五經; Wǔjīng) are five pre-Qin Chinese books that form part of the traditional Confucian canon. Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period. Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. During the Western Han dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology, these texts became part of the state-sponsored curriculum. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics".

The Five Classics are:

• Classic of Poetry《詩經》
• Book of Documents《尚書》
• Book of Rites《禮記》
• I Ching (Book of Changes)《周易》
• Spring and Autumn Annals《春秋》

References:

English:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics

Chinese: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E4%B9%A6%E4%BA%94%E7%BB%8F

Great Learning

The Great Learning or Daxue was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism attributed to one of Confucius' disciples, Zengzi. The Great Learning had come from a chapter in the Book of Rites which formed one of the Five Classics. It consists of a short main text of the teachings of Confucius transcribed by Zengzi and then ten commentary chapters supposedly written by Zengzi. 

The "Four Books" were selected by the neo-Confucian Zhu Xi during the Song dynasty as a foundational introduction to Confucianism. 

References:

English: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Learning

Chinese: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A6%AE%E8%A8%98%C2%B7%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8

The text - Professor A. Charles Muller translation

Please find below the link of a PDF file of the A. Charles Muller translation of The Great Learning.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/11NFbsdeCdwoiHuw8RdrRoDMgmElzNrva/view?usp=sharing

The James Legge translation on the Chinese Text Project website

Please find below the link to the Chinese Text Project web page with the James Legge translation. 

https://ctext.org/liji/da-xue

Meaning of Life - Exploring Possible Answers

What is the meaning of life?

It is clear that there are multiple valid answers to this question. The use of the definite article "the" in the question might suggest that there is one specific answer for each individual. Therefore, it becomes even more important to respect diverse worldviews and beliefs.

Professor Joshua Seachris, in his article "The Meaning of Life: Contemporary Analytic Perspectives," breaks down this traditional question into three parts: sense-making, purpose, and significance.

Sense-Making

This aspect of the question often involves placing something within a larger context or framework. Meaning is about intelligibility within a broader scope, about "inserting small parts into a larger, integrated context".

Consequently, the answers often take the form of creation stories and worldviews that people adopt. For religious individuals, God created the universe. For those with a scientific inclination, the Big Bang explains its origin. Some people may hold both religious and scientific beliefs, accepting a deity as the force behind the creation while acknowledging the scientific explanation of its unfolding.

By adopting a creation story and worldview, individuals can position themselves within the world and make sense of their existence.

Regardless of whether these worldviews are supernatural or not, there will always be unanswered questions. It is futile to continually ponder questions that have no answers.

For example, with the scientific explanation of creation, one might ask:

• What caused the Big Bang?
• Why was the universe created?

Ultimately, there is no definitive answer to these questions.

Similarly, with supernatural explanations of creation, one might ask:

• Why did God create the universe?
• Why did God create so many living species?
• Who created God?
• Why does God exist?

Again, there is ultimately no definitive answer.

Purpose

The purpose of one's life could simply be to fulfill the roles one plays within one's community. Consider a colony of ants. Some are drones, some are worker ants, and one or more are queen ants. Each has a distinct role. Fulfilling these roles effectively could be considered their life's purpose.

For humans, the situation is more complex. Individuals often take on multiple roles. A person might be a mother and wife at home, a teacher at work, and a volunteer at church. Her purposes in life could include raising her children, being a good teacher, and contributing to her church community.

However, some individuals may feel dissatisfied with the roles they have assumed, leading to a sense of lacking purpose in life.

Significance

This aspect of the question addresses what makes one's life meaningful. Susan Wolf's fitting-fulfillment theory suggests that a meaningful life is one that satisfies both subjective and objective values.

The "fitting fulfillment view" of the meaning of life, as proposed by Susan Wolf, posits that a life is meaningful when it is both subjectively meaningful to the individual and when the objects or activities they find meaningful are also objectively valuable. Essentially, it requires a "good fit" between subjective experience and objective worth.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Subjective Meaningfulness: Individuals must care deeply about something, be engaged in it, and experience it as meaningful. This involves feeling a sense of purpose, passion, or love for the activities or objects in their lives.

Objective Worth: The things that individuals find meaningful must also be valuable in themselves, not just to the individual. This could include contributing to society, advancing knowledge, or creating beauty.

The "Good Fit": A life is meaningful when there is a match between an individual's subjective experience of meaning and the objective worth of the things that evoke that feeling.

In other words, it is not enough to simply enjoy something; it must also possess objective value for life to be considered truly meaningful.

For example, someone might find joy in collecting stamps. However, if the stamps are merely worthless trinkets, Wolf's theory would argue that this activity, while enjoyable, does not significantly contribute to the meaning of their life. Conversely, a life dedicated to scientific research, even if it is not always enjoyable, could be considered meaningful because it has objective value for society.

An Aboriginal perspective

Please see the following for details:

• Australian Aboriginal creation story
• Purpose of life - Aboriginal perspective
• A meaningful life - Aboriginal perspective

PDF File for printing

Please see below for a PDF file of the above post for printing:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qre_wii5E4i6piaEDO2yPBp7_Zfg_Sia/view?usp=sharing

Reference:

"The Meaning of Life: Contemporary Analytic Perspectives" in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Professor Joshua Seachris.