The Problem of Evil

 

The Problem of Evil: Crash Course Philosophy #13

Introduction

The problem of evil is the philosophical question of how to reconcile the existence of evil and suffering with an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God.  

The above video from Crash Course Philosophy gives an introduction to the problem of evil.  The following are some other videos that introduce the problem of evil:

• Philosophy Vibe - The problem of evil (and the existence of God) 
• https://youtu.be/FfjrJH9PNPA?si=VCrEqsmZq7v40kyG
• This video presents the following defences or theodicies:
• The Augustinian Theodicy
• Irenaean (Soul Making) Theodicy
• The Free Will Defence Argument

Theodicies

The following videos present different defences or theodicies:

• Alex O'Connor - Free Will (defence), Souls, and the Problem of Evil | Richard Swinburne
• https://youtu.be/8Y3PtkyhOiU?si=0EhzNayO5dQckq3L
• Philosophy Vibe - Free Will Defence - Does it Solve the Problem of Evil?
• https://youtu.be/bIoN-CTwjAU?si=K0QeQyQA-zPepBEJ
• Philosophy Vibe - Leibniz - Best of all Possible Worlds Argument (Explained and Debated) 
• https://youtu.be/K8PNhJZrDlY?si=demit9KdbC6Vxylf
• Untangle Philosophy - John Hick & the Soul-Making Theodicy
• https://youtu.be/FUDmovWczng?si=5LsIo-O3oOm4Ze4g
• Untangle Philosophy - Augustine’s Theodicy | Free Will, Fallen Angels & Original Sin 
• https://youtu.be/fQZ9soVdcq0?si=OGOEhU_Ip0swOSzC
  

The arguments

The following videos present the arguments relating to the problem of evil.

• Wireless Philosophy - Philosophy: the problem of evil part 1
• https://youtu.be/V4z9Y2u30Qs?si=O2VQrqAN0Eku6MEb
• Wireless Philosophy - Philosophy: the problem of evil part 2
• https://youtu.be/prWSGbDW3LU?si=qDCNY1qOS3RIf0yM
• Wireless Philosophy - Philosophy: the problem of evil part 3
• https://youtu.be/L67dlpMgDa4?si=AT7tqTNULYwcy52U
  

Further readings

1. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Logical Problem of Evil - https://iep.utm.edu/evil-log/
2. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - The Problem of Evil - https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/
3. Wikipedia - The problem of evil - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_evil
4. Wikipedia - Theodicy - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodicy

Some Questions

1. Free Will is one of the explanations for the problem of evil.  Is evil necessary for the existence of free will?  Can't one choose between different good options?  
2. Christians believe there is no evil or suffering in heaven.  Since God allows people to have Free Will, Free Will must be good.  If Free Will is good, people would have Free Will in heaven.  Since it is possible to have Free Will in heaven where there is no evil and suffering, then evil and suffering and Free Will can co-exist.  Does that mean Free Will is not a good defence for the problem of evil?
3. One explanation of the existence of evil and suffering on earth is that Adam and Eve disobeyed God and therefore God allows evil and suffering to exist on earth.  If the reason for evil and suffering is because God wishes to punish humans, then why are there so much evil and suffering?  The punishment does not seem to be proportional to the misdemeanour.
4. One explanation of the existence of evil and suffering on earth is that they are caused by Satan, a fallen angel.  However, since God is omnipotent, why does God allow Satan to exist?
5. A defence of the existence of evil and suffering is that humans are not able to understand God's reasons for allowing evil to exist.  It appears that God had created a universe with natural laws and God does not interfere with the day to day running of the world.  If that is the belief, is it still reasonable to believe in an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God who is in control of all things on earth?

Was it a miracle or was it cheating?

 

"Passage of the Jews through the Red Sea" by Ivan Aivazovsky  (1817–1900)

The Parting of the Red Sea in the Old Testament is considered a miracle by Christians.

It tells of the escape of the Israelites, led by Moses, from the pursuing Egyptians, as recounted in the Book of Exodus.  Moses holds out his staff and God parts the waters of the Yam Suph, which is traditionally presumed to be the Red Sea. With the water dispersed, the Israelites were able to walk on dry ground and cross the sea, followed by the Egyptian army. Once the Israelites have safely crossed, Moses drops his staff, closing the sea, and drowning the pursuing Egyptians.

Even in times of war, opposing sides abide by certain conventions.  For example, nowadays, warring countries generally do not use biological, chemical or nuclear weapons. 

If we interpret the Biblical story literally and consider it to be true, the Parting of the Red Sea as recorded in the Old Testament did not follow the rules of physics.  The laws of physics should apply to everyone.  The Israelites would have broken the rules of physics when they crossed the Red Sea.  The drowned Egyptians were entitled to cry foul, if their voice could be heard.  From an independent viewpoint the Israelites had cheated.  

Parents should be fair

When parents set rules for their children, the rules should apply equally to all the children.  If the parents allow one of their children to break the rules, the parents would be acting unfairly and the child who broke the rules would be cheating.

For Christianity, God created the laws of physics.  These laws should apply to everyone.  If God allows these rules to be broken for the benefit of some people, God would be acting unfairly and the people who benefited from the miracle would be cheating.  

Other miracles

The following are some examples of alternative views of Biblical miracles:

Jesus feeding 5,000 people with only five loaves of bread and two fish could be considered unfair from the viewpoint of villagers who sell fish and bread.  Had it not been for the interference of Jesus, the 5000 people would have to buy fish and bread from the villagers.

Jesus calming a storm on the Sea of Galilee when his disciples feared they would die could be considered to be rewarding bad seamanship.

Jesus turning water into wine is not fair to the winemakers. 

The falling of the walls of Jericho was really quite unfair to the Jerichoans at the time.  According to the Bible:

Following God's law, the Israelites killed every man and woman, the young and the old, as well as the oxen, sheep, and donkeys. Only Rahab (who would be considered a traitor to the Jerichoans), her parents, brothers and all "those who belonged to her" were spared. They were incorporated into Israel. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations and gates, with the deaths of their firstborn and youngest child respectively. This was eventually fulfilled by Hiel the Bethelite under King Ahab's reign.

Learning from nature

We teach children not to cheat at school. They should abide by the rules of the school even when they are not doing well.  Instead of cheating, they should learn from their failures.

Shouldn’t believers apply that principle to their lives too?

Shouldn’t religious leaders ask their followers to try to understand and work within the rules of nature, and not to pray for miracles, even when they are not doing well?

Shouldn’t believers try to understand the rules of nature, particularly when they are not doing well, so they could learn from their failures? 

Moral Value Pluralism

 

What is Pluralism? - PHILO-notes

 

The following are articles from Wikipedia and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

• Value pluralism - Wikipedia
• Value Pluralism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)*

* We will base our discussion on the article in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy above. 

Related topics

Axiology, the study of value and valuation, is related to this topic.  The following articles in Wikipedia discuss axiology:

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)
  
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory
  
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory/

Some questions on Value Pluralism 

1. Why do people have different values?
2. Are there some core values that all people or all living things share?
3. Are there right and wrong or better and worse values or value systems?
4. If so, how does one decide which are the right or better values?
5. When there are conflicting values, how should we make good decisions?

Isaiah Berlin - Two Concepts of Liberty

About Isaiah Berlin

Discovering Isaiah Berlin - Henry Hardy (Long Version) - Johnny Lyons

Please see more about Isaiah Berlin in the Isaiah Berlin page from Wikipedia.

Two Concepts of Liberty 

An Important idea of Isaiah Berlin is the "Two Concepts of Liberty". 

Positive and Negative Liberty (Isaiah Berlin - Two Concepts of Liberty)

Tom Richey

The above video and the following article provides an introduction to the two concepts of liberty.  

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Positive and Negative Liberty
• The full text of the lecture "Two Concepts of Liberty" can be found here.

This program in Philosopher's Zone, Freedom or Liberty, gives another view of freedom and liberty.

Some Questions on the Two Concepts of Liberty

1. Do people always need negative freedom before they can enjoy positive freedom, for example, gun ownership (a question from Joe)? 
2. Are positive and negative freedom often in conflict or in tension? How do they interact with each other? 
3. Is negative freedom and positive freedom a continuum (a question from Dr Wei)?

4. What could be some problems with negative freedom?

5. What could be some problems with positive freedom?

6. Why do some people favour negative freedom?  What are the values involved?

7. Why do some people favour positive freedom? What are the values involved?

Some possible answers are here.

What is free will?

 

Photo by Khashayar Kouchpeydeh on Unsplash

Philosophy Now Article

Please find the following article: - What is Free Will?

Some Questions for Discussion

1. What is freedom?
2. What is Free Will?
3. Am I really free to do whatever I like?
4. What are the external obstacles to one's freedom?
5. What are the internal obstacles, both mental and physical, to one's freedom?  
6. People, and other social animals, give up some freedom to live in communities for survival and happiness.  What are some reasons people should give up some freedom?
7. How much freedom is appropriate for people living in a community?

Some questions from Bing Copilot

Philosophical questions about freedom and free will delve into some of the most profound and complex aspects of human existence. Here are a few key questions:

1. What is free will?

   - Is it the ability to make choices free from external constraints, or does it require the absence of internal constraints as well?

2. Do humans have free will?

   - Are our actions determined by prior causes, or do we have the genuine ability to choose differently?

3. What is the relationship between free will and moral responsibility?

   - Can we be held morally responsible for our actions if they are determined by factors beyond our control?

4. How does free will relate to determinism?

   - If the universe operates according to deterministic laws, is free will an illusion?

5. What role does free will play in the concept of personal identity?

   - How do our choices shape who we are, and can we change our identity through the exercise of free will?

6. Can free will coexist with divine omniscience?

   - If a deity knows everything that will happen, do we still have the freedom to choose?

7. How do different philosophical traditions view free will?

   - What are the perspectives of existentialism, compatibilism, libertarianism, and other schools of thought on free will?

8. What are the implications of free will for legal and social systems?

   - How should our understanding of free will influence laws, punishments, and social policies?

These questions have been debated for centuries and continue to inspire rich philosophical inquiry. Do any of these questions particularly resonate with you or spark your curiosity?

Consequentialism

 

PHILOSOPHY - Ethics: Consequentialism 

by Wireless Philosophy

The above video provides an introduction to Consequentialism.  The most well known type of consequentialism is utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36

by CrashCourse

A longer video of Utilitarianism by Professor Jeffrey Kaplan can be found here. 

Some questions for discussion

1. What are the different types of consequentialism?
2. What are some of the advantages of consequentialism as an ethical theory?
3. What are some of the criticisms of consequentialism and their responses? 
4. What is the principle of utility according to Jeremy Bentham?

Some questions from Bing Copilot

Consequentialism is a fascinating ethical theory that evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes. Here are some thought-provoking questions you might consider:

1. What is the core principle of consequentialism?
2. How does consequentialism differ from deontological ethics and virtue ethics?
3. What are some real-world examples where consequentialist reasoning is applied?
4. What are the main criticisms of consequentialism?
5. How does utilitarianism, a form of consequentialism, determine the morality of an action?
6. Can consequentialism justify actions that are generally considered immoral if they lead to a greater good?
7. How do consequentialists handle situations where the outcomes are uncertain or unpredictable?
8. What role does the concept of “the greatest good for the greatest number” play in consequentialist ethics?
9. How do different forms of consequentialism (e.g., act vs. rule consequentialism) approach ethical decision-making?
10. What are the potential limitations of using a consequentialist framework in complex moral dilemmas?

These questions can help you delve deeper into the nuances and complexities of consequentialist ethics¹²³. 

References:

1. ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu
2. ethics.org.au
3. oxfordbibliographies.com

Possible answers

Please find possible answers here.

Introduction to ethics

Please find a PDF printout of the above diagram here.

The following article from Wikipedia provides an Introduction to Ethics.

Some discussion questions on ethics

1. Do you have an ethical system that you use in making ethical or moral decisions?
2. Do you find the Wikipedia article on Ethics adequately describes the field of ethics?
3. What are some ethical questions or dilemmas you have encountered?
4. Do you think the study of ethics will help you make better ethical decisions?

Some possible answers to the above questions can be found here.

Here are some thought-provoking discussion questions on ethics from Bing co-pilot:

1. Is it ever okay to lie? If so, when and why?
2. Do you believe that everyone should have equal rights? Why or why not?
3. If you discovered that a popular product you use daily was produced unethically (e.g., using child labour or harming the environment), would you continue to use it? Why or why not?
4. Is it ethical to use animals for testing products or scientific research?
5. Should companies be allowed to patent life-saving medications, potentially limiting access to those who cannot afford them? Why or why not?
6. Should we always help someone in need, even if it puts us at risk?
7. Is it ethical to prioritise the education of gifted students over those with learning difficulties or disabilities?

These questions can help spark deep and meaningful conversations about various ethical dilemmas and perspectives¹². Do any of these questions resonate with you or seem particularly interesting?

Source: Conversation with Copilot, 27/08/2024

(1) 40 Ethical Conversation Questions for Engaging Discussion. https://eslconversationtopics.com/questions/ethical-discussions/.

(2) 28 Top Moral Dilemma Questions [+ Scenarios & Examples] - IcebreakerIdeas. https://icebreakerideas.com/moral-dilemma-questions/.

(3) Discussion Questions and Exercises | Online Resources. https://edge.sagepub.com/northouse8e/student-resources-0/chapter-13/discussion-questions-and-exercises.

(4) 200 Ethical Topics & Questions to Debate in Essay - GradesFixer. https://gradesfixer.com/blog/200-ethical-topics-questions-to-debate-in-essay/.

(5) ESL Conversation Questions - Ethics. https://www.eslconversationquestions.com/ethics/.